Student Name Western Governors University D313 Anatomy and Physiology II with Lab Prof. Name Date Laboratory Report Predictions Will heart rate (HR) change during exercise? It is anticipated that the heart rate will increase during physical exertion. This physiological response occurs because the muscles demand more oxygen and nutrients to sustain activity, prompting the cardiovascular system to elevate heart rate for efficient oxygen delivery throughout the body. What happens to stroke volume (SV) during exercise? Stroke volume is expected to rise during exercise. This increase happens as the heart contracts more forcefully and ejects a larger volume of blood per beat, enhancing overall circulatory efficiency. How will cardiac output (CO) be affected during exercise? Cardiac output, which is the product of heart rate and stroke volume, is predicted to increase substantially during exercise. This rise reflects the body’s adaptive mechanism to satisfy the heightened metabolic and oxygen demands of working muscles. Materials and Methods Variables and Measurements Variable Type Variables Description Dependent Variables End-Diastolic Volume (EDV), End-Systolic Volume (ESV), Cardiac Cycle Length Quantitative indicators of cardiac function. Independent Variable Level of Physical Activity Classified as “Resting” or “Exercising.” Controlled Variables Age, gender, body weight, height, and general health status Maintained constant to ensure reliability and minimize bias. Instrumentation What instrument was used to measure cardiac volumes?An echocardiograph was employed to evaluate cardiac volumes. This non-invasive imaging tool measures chamber dimensions and ventricular performance by using sound waves. Does the echocardiograph use X-rays? Explain.No. The echocardiograph operates through ultrasound technology, which uses high-frequency sound waves to generate real-time images of the heart. Unlike X-rays, it does not involve ionizing radiation, making it a safer diagnostic method. Results Table 1 Cardiac Cycle Length, End-Diastolic Volume (EDV), and End-Systolic Volume (ESV) at Rest and During Exercise Subject Cardiac Cycle Length (msec) EDV (mL) ESV (mL) Cardiac Cycle Length (msec) EDV (mL) ESV (mL)   Resting     Exercising     Subject 1 814 145 65 447 143 31 Subject 2 820 140 74 398 140 31 Subject 3 809 139 67 414 140 35 Average 814 141 69 420 141 32 Analysis of Cardiac Cycle Length, EDV, and ESV What is the average resting cardiac cycle length? At rest, the average cardiac cycle length measured approximately 814 milliseconds, corresponding to a heart rate near 74 beats per minute. How does the cardiac cycle length change during exercise? During exercise, the cycle shortened significantly to about 420 milliseconds, indicating a higher heart rate and faster cardiac rhythm to support greater circulatory demand. What is the average EDV at rest and during exercise? The end-diastolic volume (EDV) remained relatively stable at 141 mL across both conditions, suggesting the heart maintained consistent ventricular filling despite reduced diastolic duration. How does the ESV change with exercise? The end-systolic volume (ESV) decreased notably from 69 mL at rest to 32 mL during exercise, reflecting more efficient ventricular contraction and ejection. Table 2 Heart Rate (HR), Stroke Volume (SV), and Cardiac Output (CO) at Rest and During Exercise Subject HR (beats/min) SV (mL) CO (L/min) HR (beats/min) SV (mL) CO (L/min)   Resting     Exercising     Subject 1 74 80 5.9 134 112 15.0 Subject 2 73 66 4.8 151 109 16.5 Subject 3 74 72 5.3 145 105 15.2 Average 74 73 5.3 143 109 15.6 Analysis of Heart Rate, Stroke Volume, and Cardiac Output What was the average resting heart rate? The mean resting heart rate was 74 beats per minute (bpm), consistent with typical adult resting values. How did heart rate change during exercise? During exercise, heart rate rose dramatically to an average of 143 bpm, almost doubling from the resting level to accommodate increased oxygen transport needs. What was the stroke volume at rest and during exercise? Stroke volume increased from 73 mL at rest to 109 mL during exercise, demonstrating enhanced cardiac efficiency through improved ventricular contractility and venous return. How did cardiac output respond to exercise? Cardiac output expanded from 5.3 L/min at rest to 15.6 L/min during exercise, nearly a threefold increase. This change underscores the cardiovascular system’s capacity to meet elevated metabolic demands. Discussion What caused the increase in heart rate with exercise? Exercise stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, which releases catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine). These hormones accelerate heart rate to enhance oxygen delivery to active muscles, supporting sustained physical effort. How do venous return and heart rate influence exercise EDV? Venous return increases during exercise as skeletal muscles compress veins and respiratory activity promotes blood flow toward the heart. Although the elevated heart rate shortens filling time, this augmented venous return preserves or slightly raises end-diastolic volume (EDV). Why does ESV decrease during exercise? A decrease in end-systolic volume (ESV) results from stronger ventricular contractions driven by increased sympathetic activity and calcium ion availability. This efficient ejection allows the heart to pump a larger proportion of its contents per beat. Why does stroke volume increase with exercise? Stroke volume rises due to a combination of enhanced venous return, improved myocardial contractility, and reduced peripheral resistance. Together, these factors enable the ventricles to fill more effectively and eject blood more forcefully. What is the significance of the increase in cardiac output during exercise? The elevation in cardiac output ensures that oxygen and nutrients are adequately supplied to tissues while metabolic waste products are efficiently removed. This adaptation is vital for maintaining endurance and delaying fatigue during physical exertion. Were the initial predictions supported by the experiment? Yes, the predictions were validated. Heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output all showed substantial increases during exercise. Specifically, heart rate rose from 74 to 143 bpm, stroke volume from 73 to 109 mL, and cardiac output from 5.3 to 15.6 L/min. Application What is the average stroke volume of the right ventricle at rest and after exercise? The right ventricle’s average stroke volume aligns closely with that of the left ventricle, measuring approximately 73 mL at rest and 109 mL during exercise. This equilibrium maintains consistent pulmonary and systemic circulation. If the left ventricle’s stroke volume exceeds that of the right ventricle for one beat, how is this discrepancy corrected? Any transient imbalance is self-corrected through the Frank-Starling mechanism, wherein increased ventricular filling pressure in

Student Name Western Governors University D313 Anatomy and Physiology II with Lab Prof. Name Date Lab 12: The Lymphatic System Prelab Questions 1. The experiments in this lab cover the lymphatic system. Provide a brief overview of this system. Include a discussion on the structures involved, its purpose and the cells involved. The lymphatic system is a vital component of the body’s circulatory and immune functions. It consists of an extensive network of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and specialized organs, including the spleen, thymus, and tonsils. These structures collaborate to maintain fluid balance, absorb dietary fats, and protect the body from pathogens. Lymphatic vessels transport lymph—a clear fluid derived from interstitial fluid—throughout the body. Lymph nodes, distributed along these vessels, act as biological filters that trap foreign particles and initiate immune responses. The spleen filters blood, recycles aged erythrocytes, and stores platelets, while the thymus is crucial for the maturation of T lymphocytes. The tonsils provide localized immune protection in the pharyngeal region. The primary cells of the lymphatic system are lymphocytes, including B cells, which produce antibodies, and T cells, which mediate cellular immune responses. Additionally, macrophages and dendritic cells aid in antigen presentation and pathogen destruction. Together, these elements maintain fluid homeostasis and immune defense (Abbas et al., 2020). Experiment 1: Examining the Microscopic Anatomy of the Lymphatic System Introduction Questions 1. In this experiment, you will review slides containing cells from lymph nodes and from the spleen. Describe the specific functions of these tissues. Are they similar or different? How? Lymph nodes and the spleen share immunological functions but differ in the types of fluids they filter and the scope of their actions. Lymph nodes are responsible for filtering lymph fluid, detecting pathogens, and activating lymphocytes in localized regions. The spleen, on the other hand, filters blood, removes senescent red blood cells, and stores immune cells and platelets. Despite these differences, both organs possess structural compartments that facilitate immune surveillance. Their shared objective—to identify and neutralize foreign invaders—demonstrates a functional synergy within the immune system (Janeway et al., 2001). Data and Observations Label Structure A Lymphoid Follicles B Germinal Centers C Connective Tissue Capsule D Medullary Cords E Red Pulp F White Pulp Results and Discussion 1. Are there more afferent or efferent vessels attached to a lymph node? What is the functional purpose of this? Lymph nodes contain more afferent vessels than efferent vessels. This configuration ensures that lymph fluid enters the node from multiple directions, increasing the opportunity for antigen exposure to immune cells. The limited number of efferent vessels slows lymph outflow, providing adequate time for filtration and activation of immune responses. This structural design enhances the node’s efficiency in immune surveillance and pathogen detection (Kumar et al., 2018). 2. What structural similarities did you observe between the lymph node and spleen? Both the lymph node and spleen are encapsulated organs with specialized internal architecture. Each contains reticular connective tissue that supports immune cell populations. The lymph node is divided into a cortex and medulla, while the spleen has white and red pulp regions. These compartments facilitate fluid filtration and immune function, highlighting their shared roles in body defense and fluid regulation (Mescher, 2016). Experiment 2: Virtual Model – The Lymphatic System Introduction Questions 1. In what areas are lymph nodes clustered? Why is this desirable? Lymph nodes are concentrated in the cervical, axillary, and inguinal regions—strategic points where lymph from large body areas converges. This clustering maximizes filtration efficiency, allowing immune cells to detect and respond to pathogens early. Such anatomical distribution ensures rapid immune responses near areas vulnerable to infection, such as the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts (Ganong, 2016). 2. Explain how the flow of lymph is controlled through lymphatic vessels. Lymph flow is maintained through a combination of physical and physiological mechanisms. These include the contraction of smooth muscle in lymphatic vessel walls, skeletal muscle movement, respiratory pressure changes, and one-way valves that prevent backflow. The absence of a central pump, like the heart, makes these auxiliary mechanisms essential for maintaining continuous lymph flow toward the thoracic duct and venous return (Tortora & Derrickson, 2018). Data and Observations Screenshot Description 1 Spleen 2 Thoracic Duct 3 Axillary Lymph Node Results and Discussion Question Answer Is the cisterna chyli or the spleen more medial to the spinal cord? The cisterna chyli is more medial to the spinal cord. What is the name of the most superior lymph nodes in the head region? Preauricular lymph nodes. Where are the popliteal nodes located? Popliteal nodes are located in the popliteal fossa, behind the knee. What are the most inferior lymph nodes in the body called? Popliteal lymph nodes. What component of the lymphatic system filters lymph from the upper limbs and upper external part of the thorax? Axillary lymph nodes. Experiment 3: Fetal Pig Dissection – The Lymphatic System Introduction Questions 1. Consider Step 7 of the procedure. Why do you think the procedure is specifying these specific regions? The cervical, axillary, and inguinal regions are highlighted because they contain major clusters of lymph nodes that serve as primary filtration sites. These nodes are strategically positioned to screen lymph from significant body regions, ensuring efficient immune monitoring. Examining these areas during dissection helps identify the key functional nodes responsible for immune defense (Ross & Pawlina, 2015). 2. Consider the organ observed in Step 8. Do humans have this same organ? Research the answer to this question and discuss below. Yes, humans possess a thymus gland similar to that of a fetal pig. Located in the anterior mediastinum, the thymus plays a central role in T-cell maturation and differentiation. Though the gland shrinks after puberty, it remains partially active throughout adulthood, maintaining immune homeostasis and contributing to adaptive immunity (Kumar et al., 2018). Results and Discussion 1. What observations did you make regarding the lymphatic system of the fetal pig? During dissection, identifying lymphatic structures was challenging due to their delicate and translucent nature. The thymus and spleen were more visible, exhibiting structural similarities to human organs. Lymphatic vessels and nodes were present but smaller and less distinct.

Student Name Western Governors University D313 Anatomy and Physiology II with Lab Prof. Name Date Prenatal Terms and Abbreviations Pregnancy-related terminology is vital for effective and precise communication in obstetrics and maternal healthcare. Understanding these terms ensures accuracy in patient assessment, documentation, and interdisciplinary collaboration. The following sections redefine essential prenatal terms and their clinical implications. Preterm, Term, and Postterm Pregnancies A pregnancy is categorized based on gestational duration, measured from the first day of the last menstrual period (LMP). These classifications assist healthcare professionals in identifying potential risks and planning appropriate interventions. Term Definition Gestational Range Preterm Pregnancy reaching at least 20 weeks but ending before 37 completed weeks. 20–36 weeks 6/7 days Early Term Births that occur slightly before the standard full-term range. 37 weeks to 38 weeks 6/7 days Full Term Pregnancy lasting the expected duration. 39 weeks to 40 weeks 6/7 days Late Term Pregnancy that continues slightly beyond the expected full term. 41 weeks to 41 weeks 6/7 days Postterm (Postdate) Pregnancy that extends beyond 42 completed weeks. ≥42 weeks Common Abbreviations in Prenatal Care Healthcare professionals frequently use abbreviations in clinical documentation to streamline communication. The table below outlines commonly used obstetric abbreviations and their meanings. Abbreviation Meaning IUP / IUFD Intrauterine Pregnancy / Intrauterine Fetal Demise SAB Spontaneous Abortion TAB Therapeutic Abortion LMP Last Menstrual Period ROM Rupture of Membranes SROM / AROM Spontaneous / Artificial Rupture of Membranes PROM / PPROM Prolonged (>24 hours) / Preterm Premature Rupture of Membranes SVD Spontaneous Vaginal Delivery FHR / EFM Fetal Heart Rate / Electronic Fetal Monitoring US / FSE / IUPC Ultrasound / Fetal Scalp Electrode / Intrauterine Pressure Catheter LTV / SVE Long-Term Variability / Sterile Vaginal Exam MLE Midline Episiotomy NST / CST / BPP Non-Stress Test / Contraction Stress Test / Biophysical Profile VBAC Vaginal Birth After Cesarean AFI Amniotic Fluid Index BUFA / NPNC / LPNC Baby Up for Adoption / No Prenatal Care / Late Prenatal Care PTL / BOA Preterm Labor / Born On Arrival BTL Bilateral Tubal Ligation D&C / D&E Dilation & Curettage / Dilation & Evacuation TIUP Term Intrauterine Pregnancy VMI / VFI Viable Male Infant / Viable Female Infant EDB / EDC / EDD Estimated Date of Birth / Confinement / Delivery Obstetric Terminology: Gravidity, Parity, and Pregnancy Duration What Do Gravida and Para Mean? Parity Term Description Number Nullipara No pregnancies beyond 20 weeks. 0 Primipara One pregnancy reaching viability. 1 Multipara Two or more pregnancies reaching viability. 2+ What Is GTPAL? GTPAL is a system used to describe a woman’s reproductive history comprehensively. It summarizes gravidity, term, preterm, abortion, and living children counts. Letter Meaning Notes G Gravidity: Total pregnancies (including current). Multiples count as one. T Term births (>37 weeks). Includes live or stillbirths. P Preterm births (20–36 6/7 weeks). Includes live or stillbirths. A Abortions before 20 weeks. Includes spontaneous and therapeutic. L Living children. Multiples counted individually. Pregnancy Duration and Fetal Age Gestational age begins from the first day of the last normal menstrual period (LMP) and typically spans about 40 weeks. Fetal age, however, starts from conception and averages 38 weeks, approximately two weeks shorter. Trimester Duration (Weeks) First 0–13 Second 14–26 Third 27–40 How to Use Naegele’s Rule for Estimating Delivery Date Naegele’s Rule provides a simple method for estimating the Expected Date of Delivery (EDD) using the first day of the LMP. Formula: Example: Date Event Date Last Menstrual Period (LMP) September 2, 2015 Minus 3 months June 2, 2015 Add 7 days June 9, 2015 Add 1 year June 9, 2016 Practice Question 1 Scenario:A patient gave birth on her due date two hours ago. She has a three-year-old daughter born a week past her due date and experienced a miscarriage at eight weeks last year. What is her GTPAL? Option G T P A L A 2 2 1 0 2 B 3 2 1 0 1 C 3 2 1 0 2 D 3 2 0 1 2 Correct Answer: D (3–2–0–1–2) Practice Question 2 Scenario:A woman with three previous pregnancies has had children born at 39 weeks, twins at 34 weeks, and one at 38 weeks. She is currently 38 weeks pregnant. Option G T P A L A 4 1 3 0 4 B 4 1 2 0 3 C 4 2 1 0 4 D 4 2 2 0 4 Correct Answer: C (4–2–1–0–4) Perfect ✅ — I’ll now continue with the full expanded, rephrased, APA-formatted version from where we left off, maintaining your requested Level 3 and 4 headings, tables, and question–answer format. Pregnancy Signs and Symptoms Recognizing the clinical signs and symptoms of pregnancy is vital for early detection and assessment. These signs are classified into three categories—presumptive, probable, and positive—based on their level of diagnostic certainty. Presumptive (Subjective) Signs of Pregnancy Presumptive signs are those experienced and reported by the woman herself. They are subjective and not conclusive, as they may result from other physiological or psychological conditions. Common presumptive signs include: Why Is Quickening Not a Positive Sign? Quickening can be misinterpreted as gastrointestinal activity such as gas or intestinal movement. Therefore, it cannot be considered a definitive indicator of pregnancy. Probable (Objective) Signs of Pregnancy Probable signs are observed by healthcare providers during clinical assessment. Although these signs are stronger indicators than presumptive ones, they are not absolute proof of pregnancy. Common probable signs include: Why Is a Positive Pregnancy Test Not a Positive Sign? Elevated hCG levels may occur in conditions such as trophoblastic disease or certain cancers, resulting in false-positive outcomes. Positive (Definitive) Signs of Pregnancy Positive signs are conclusive indicators confirming the presence of a living fetus. These findings are based on direct evidence of fetal activity or visualization. These definitive findings confirm an intrauterine pregnancy beyond doubt. What Should Be Avoided During Pregnancy? To protect fetal development and maternal health, pregnant individuals should avoid exposure to certain harmful agents, substances, and infections. Category Examples Potential Risks Teratogenic Drugs Thalidomide, valproic acid, phenytoin, retinoids, ACE inhibitors, lithium, warfarin Fetal malformations,

Student Name Western Governors University D313 Anatomy and Physiology II with Lab Prof. Name Date Lab 13: The Respiratory System Student Name: ____________________________Access Code:  Pre-Lab Questions 1. What are two main functions of the nasal cavity mucosa? The mucosa within the nasal cavity plays a critical role in protecting the respiratory system. Primarily, it filters the air by capturing dust, allergens, and microorganisms, thus preventing harmful particles from entering the lower airways. Secondly, it humidifies and warms the incoming air, which helps prevent dryness and irritation of the respiratory tract. These combined actions maintain a stable internal environment conducive to efficient gas exchange within the alveoli. 2. Why does the trachea have cartilaginous rings? The trachea is supported by C-shaped cartilaginous rings that provide both flexibility and strength. These rings maintain the airway’s openness by preventing collapse during inhalation and exhalation. Moreover, the open portion of each ring, positioned posteriorly near the esophagus, allows flexibility during swallowing—facilitating the passage of food without compressing the trachea. 3. What is the pathway of oxygen from the nares to body tissues? The pathway of oxygen begins at the nares (nostrils), moves through the nasal cavity, and continues into the pharynx, larynx, and trachea. From there, oxygen passes into the bronchi, bronchioles, and finally the alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. Once oxygen enters the alveoli, it diffuses into the pulmonary capillaries, binds with hemoglobin in red blood cells, and is transported through the bloodstream to various body tissues for cellular respiration. 4. How is asthma characterized? Asthma is a chronic inflammatory condition of the airways marked by bronchoconstriction, swelling, and mucus hypersecretion. This leads to symptoms like wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. The disease is typically managed through inhaled corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and bronchodilators to relieve acute symptoms. Environmental triggers such as allergens, cold air, and stress can exacerbate the condition. Experiment 1: Microscopic Anatomy of the Respiratory System Table 1: Observations of Respiratory Structures Structure Description Trachea A flexible, U-shaped tube lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing goblet cells that secrete mucus to trap foreign particles. Lung A spongy, elastic organ with a grayish appearance, responsible for facilitating gas exchange between air and blood. Post-Lab Questions 1. Label the arrows in the microscopic slide images A: Goblet cellsB: Basement membraneC: Connective tissue of lamina propriaD: CiliaE: BronchioleF: BronchiG: AlveoliH: Capillaries 2. What alveolar features facilitate gas exchange? Alveoli are designed to optimize gas exchange through thin epithelial walls (Type I pneumocytes), an extensive capillary network, and a large surface area. Additionally, the moist environment within the alveoli promotes efficient diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of it. Type II cells secrete surfactant to reduce surface tension and prevent alveolar collapse. 3. Why is mucus present in the trachea? Mucus serves as a protective barrier that traps dust, microbes, and other particulates, preventing them from reaching the lungs. It also maintains airway moisture and supports immune defenses by containing antibodies and antimicrobial proteins that neutralize pathogens. 4. What is the function of cilia in the trachea? Cilia on the tracheal epithelial cells beat rhythmically upward to propel mucus and trapped debris toward the pharynx. This process, known as the mucociliary escalator, is essential for keeping the airways clean and reducing infection risk. Experiment 2: Virtual Model of the Respiratory System (Insert screenshot of the epiglottis — user to provide) Post-Lab Questions Question Answer How does diaphragm contraction affect thoracic cavity pressure and lung volume? When the diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume increases, decreasing internal pressure, thus drawing air into the lungs (inhalation). Upon relaxation, pressure rises and air is expelled (exhalation). Where does deoxygenated blood become oxygenated? Oxygenation occurs in the alveoli of the lungs where gas exchange takes place between alveolar air and capillary blood. Is the trachea located superior or inferior to the diaphragm? The trachea is positioned superior (above) to the diaphragm. Which structure is more medial: the right lung or the tracheal bifurcation? The tracheal bifurcation is more medial. What is the most inferior organ of the respiratory system? The diaphragm is the most inferior structure associated with respiration. Experiment 3: Understanding Lung Mechanics Table 2: Lung Mechanics Observations Observation Description Squeezed Bottle (Step 3) The internal balloon expands as air is drawn in, simulating the inhalation process. Released Bottle (Step 4) The balloon contracts as air exits, replicating exhalation. Post-Lab Questions Experiment 4: Spirometry Data Analysis Patient Spirometry Data Summary Patient FVC (L) FEV1 (L) FEV1/FVC (%) Interpretation A 4.93 4.10 83.3 Asthma well managed B 2.16 1.93 89.7 Mild asthma symptoms C 2.74 2.08 76.1 Reduced lung capacity, possible surgery candidate D 2.53 2.00 78.95 Potential airway obstruction E 2.29 2.03 88.6 Normal respiratory function Post-Lab Questions Experiment 5: Fetal Pig Dissection Post-Lab Questions References American Thoracic Society. (2023). Spirometry. https://www.thoracic.org/patients/patient-resources/resources/spirometry.pdf Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2018). Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed.). Pearson. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2020). Asthma. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/asthma D313 Lab 13 The Respiratory System Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (15th ed.). Wiley. D313 Lab 13: The Respiratory System.