Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems Question: Describe innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work, and how they interact. The immune system is composed of two fundamental branches: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system serves as the body’s initial line of defense, providing a rapid but non-specific response to pathogens. This system includes physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes, chemical defenses such as antimicrobial proteins and enzymes, and cellular components like neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. These elements function to recognize and eliminate pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that detect pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). In contrast, the adaptive immune system provides a targeted and highly specific defense. It involves lymphocytes—T cells and B cells—that recognize specific antigens. Upon first exposure to a pathogen, the adaptive response is slower but generates immunological memory, which ensures a faster and more efficient response during future exposures. The interaction between the two systems is critical; for instance, dendritic cells, part of the innate system, present antigens to T cells to initiate the adaptive response. Thus, the innate system not only provides initial protection but also activates and shapes the adaptive response. Antibody Subclasses Question: Explain the various subclasses of antibodies – how they are similar, how they differ. Antibodies, or immunoglobulins (Ig), are glycoproteins produced by B cells that play a vital role in immune defense. All antibodies share a similar Y-shaped structure composed of two heavy and two light chains, but they are classified into five main subclasses based on their heavy chain: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD. Antibody Class Location/Function Unique Features IgG Circulating in blood and tissues Most abundant, provides long-term immunity IgA Mucosal surfaces (saliva, tears, intestines) Protects mucosal areas, forms dimers IgM Blood and lymph First antibody produced in response to infection IgE Skin, lungs, mucous membranes Triggers allergic responses, protects against parasites IgD B cell surface Role not fully understood, involved in B cell activation Respiratory Definitions Question: Define ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration. Be sure to identify their functions and where they occur. Ventilation refers to the mechanical process of moving air into and out of the lungs, primarily through the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. External respiration involves the exchange of gases between the alveoli in the lungs and the surrounding capillaries; oxygen diffuses into the blood while carbon dioxide diffuses out. Internal respiration, in contrast, occurs in peripheral tissues where oxygen is delivered from the blood to the cells and carbon dioxide is collected for removal. Neural Control of Ventilation Question: Explain the neural control of ventilation, including brain centers, sensory and motor signals. Ventilation is regulated by neural centers located in the brainstem, particularly the medulla oblongata and pons. The medullary rhythmicity area controls the basic rhythm of breathing, while the pontine centers fine-tune the rate and pattern. Chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies detect changes in blood levels of CO2, O2, and pH. These sensory signals are relayed to the brainstem, which then sends motor commands via the phrenic and intercostal nerves to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, enabling breathing movements. Gas Transport in Blood Question: Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood, emphasizing factors affecting loading/unloading in the lungs vs. tissues. Oxygen is predominantly transported by hemoglobin within red blood cells. In the lungs, where oxygen partial pressure is high, hemoglobin binds oxygen. In tissues with lower oxygen levels and higher carbon dioxide levels, oxygen is released. Carbon dioxide is transported mainly as bicarbonate ions, but also bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma. The Bohr effect, temperature, and pH all influence the efficiency of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. T Cell Subclasses Question: List and briefly describe the major functions of the various subclasses of T cells. BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory) T cells are differentiated into several functional types: T Cell Type Function Helper T (CD4+) Activate B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages Cytotoxic T (CD8+) Destroy virus-infected and tumor cells Regulatory T Suppress excessive immune responses to maintain tolerance Adaptive Immune Response Question: Explain the similarities and differences between primary and secondary responses of the adaptive immune response. The primary immune response occurs upon the first exposure to an antigen. It is slower and less robust, requiring time for antigen recognition and lymphocyte activation. In contrast, the secondary response is faster and more intense, thanks to memory B and T cells generated during the initial exposure. These memory cells facilitate a rapid and specific response to previously encountered pathogens. Function of the Spleen Question: Functions of the Spleen The spleen filters blood, removes aged or damaged red blood cells, and initiates immune responses against blood-borne antigens. It also acts as a reservoir for white blood cells and platelets. Muscles in Respiration Question: All muscles used in exhaling and inhaling Inhalation involves the diaphragm and external intercostals, which expand the thoracic cavity. Exhalation is typically passive but becomes active during forceful breathing, engaging the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles. Characteristics of the Thymus Question: Know the characteristics of the thymus The thymus is a bilobed gland located in the mediastinum. It is essential for the maturation and differentiation of T lymphocytes and is most active during childhood, shrinking with age. Components of the Lymphatic System Question: Know the components of the lymphatic system The lymphatic system comprises lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen, thymus, and tonsils. These structures support immune surveillance, fluid balance, and fat absorption. Respiratory Conduction System Question: Know the conduction system for air Air travels through the nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli. The conducting zone ends at the terminal bronchioles, and the respiratory zone begins at the respiratory bronchioles, leading to alveolar ducts and alveoli where gas exchange takes place. Site of Gas Exchange in Lungs

Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date Respiratory System – Physiology Learning objectives Introduction Oxygen is a fundamental requirement for cellular respiration, allowing cells to generate the energy needed to sustain life processes. As a byproduct, cells produce carbon dioxide, which must be expelled from the body to avoid toxicity. The brainstem’s respiratory center regulates breathing patterns and depth to match oxygen intake with metabolic demands. This lab focuses on the remarkable adaptations of Weddell seals that enable them to dive to extreme depths—sometimes exceeding 600 meters—and to remain underwater for over 30 minutes. These adaptations involve efficient oxygen storage and usage mechanisms, including the ability to utilize both aerobic and anaerobic pathways. By examining oxygen and lactate data from various dives, students will understand concepts such as oxygen reservoirs, the aerobic dive limit (ADL), and differences between human and seal physiology in deep-diving contexts. Respiratory Physiology Lab Report Oxygen storage and dive performance comparison The table below presents key parameters comparing Weddell seal and human respiratory and cardiovascular capabilities related to diving: Parameter Weddell Seal Human Typical diving depth Up to 600 meters, lasting over an hour Around 35.5 meters for only a few minutes Oxygen in lungs 1,200 mL/min 900 mL/min Oxygen in blood 21,950 mL/min 1,005 mL/min Oxygen in muscle 9,005 mL/min 188 mL/min Total oxygen reserves 32,155 mL/min 2,093 mL/min Percentage of oxygen in blood 71% 59% Percentage of oxygen in muscle 25% 16% Percentage of oxygen in lungs 4% 25% Predicted aerobic dive limit (ADL) 10.2 minutes (using human-based factorial method) 1.4 minutes Actual aerobic dive limit (ADL) 23.8 minutes Not applicable Main difference in oxygen storage between seals and humans What is the main difference in oxygen stores between seals and humans? Unlike humans, who inhale deeply before a dive to fill their lungs with air, Weddell seals exhale before diving to reduce the risk of nitrogen bubble formation under high pressure (a condition known as decompression sickness or “the bends”). Seals experience a rapid increase in pressure with depth—pressure doubles every 10 meters—yet their lung structure and ability to collapse safely under pressure allow them to dive without injury. Proportion of oxygen stored in human body compartments Which part of the body holds the greatest proportion of oxygen in humans? In humans, the largest oxygen reservoir during diving resides in the lungs, accounting for about 25% of total oxygen. In contrast, seals primarily store oxygen in their blood and muscles. Their blood contains more hemoglobin, and their muscles have higher myoglobin levels, allowing for efficient oxygen retention and release. This significant storage in tissues rather than lungs supports prolonged diving. Oxygen consumption differences Do seals exhibit the same factorial increase in oxygen consumption as humans? No, seals do not follow the same pattern of increased oxygen use with physical effort seen in humans. Their physiological response to diving includes a decrease in metabolic rate and oxygen consumption, enabling extended dive times. Compared to humans, Weddell seals can dive up to 16 times longer due to this metabolic efficiency. Oxygen use in various dive durations What are the oxygen consumption rates during 12-minute and 30-minute dives? Dive Duration Oxygen Consumption (mL/min) 12 minutes 4.88 mL/min 30 minutes 4.48 mL/min This minimal change suggests that seals regulate their metabolism to maintain a steady, low rate of oxygen use, even when dive durations increase significantly. Lactate accumulation How does lactate accumulation differ between short and long dives? During the 12-minute dive, no significant lactate build-up was observed, indicating the dive remained within the aerobic limit. However, the 30-minute dive resulted in lactate levels rising from 2 mmol/L to 10 mmol/L. This implies that the longer dive exceeded the aerobic threshold, forcing the seal to rely partially on anaerobic pathways to meet its energy requirements. Cardiac response during diving What happens to the seal’s heart rate during diving? Seals demonstrate a pronounced reduction in heart rate (bradycardia) while submerged, conserving oxygen and slowing circulation to non-essential organs. This adaptation allows them to prioritize oxygen delivery to vital organs like the brain and heart during long dives. Correlation between heart rate and oxygen usage How do heart rate and oxygen consumption patterns change during long dives? In 30-minute dives, Weddell seals exhibit a decreased heart rate alongside stable or slightly reduced oxygen consumption. This synergy between cardiac and respiratory adaptations reflects a well-coordinated physiological response for conserving energy and maximizing dive efficiency. Misconception about lung size Which statement about seal adaptations is inaccurate? The false claim is that seals have relatively larger lungs than humans. In reality, seals have smaller lungs for their body size. Their primary oxygen stores are found in the blood and muscle tissues, rather than the lungs, unlike in humans. Integration of respiratory and circulatory functions How do the seal’s respiratory and circulatory systems support diving? The seal’s respiratory system is adapted to allow lung compression under pressure, preventing decompression sickness. Meanwhile, the circulatory system contains an unusually high blood volume and elevated oxygen-carrying capacity. Together, these systems work to effectively store, conserve, and distribute oxygen during dives, supporting both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism as needed. References Davis, R. W., & Kanatous, S. B. (1999). Convective oxygen transport and tissue oxygen consumption in Weddell seals during aerobic dives. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 202(8), 1091–1113. Kooyman, G. L., & Ponganis, P. J. (1998). The physiological basis of diving to depth: Birds and mammals. Annual Review of Physiology, 60(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.19 BIOS 255 Week 7 Respiratory System-Physiology Ponganis, P. J. (2015). Diving physiology of marine mammals and seabirds. Cambridge University Press. Labster. (n.d.). Cardiorespiratory Physiology: How Can Seals Dive So Deep for So Long? Lab simulation. https://www.labster.com

Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date Respiratory System – Anatomy Learning Objectives Introduction The respiratory system plays a vital role in ensuring oxygen delivery to tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide from the body. The passage of air begins at the nasal or oral cavity, continues through the pharynx and larynx, and proceeds down the trachea into the branching bronchial tree before reaching the alveoli in the lungs. Inhalation is driven by the expansion of the thoracic cavity, which reduces intrapulmonary pressure below atmospheric levels, allowing air to flow inward. This is facilitated by the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The lungs are enclosed within a double-layered pleural membrane that provides protection and helps maintain intrapleural pressure. Assessing pulmonary function through tools such as spirometry provides valuable insights into lung capacity and efficiency. Understanding these elements provides a foundation for exploring the intricate processes of respiratory physiology. Assignment Part 1: Anatomy.TV Activity Students are required to complete the interactive modules on Anatomy.TV, covering: Instructions to Access: Respiratory Anatomy Lab Report Purpose This laboratory activity aims to explore respiratory physiology by examining the anatomical components of the respiratory system, understanding airflow mechanics, applying Boyle’s Law, and evaluating different respiratory volumes. Procedure The lab involves recognizing key structures of the respiratory system and tracing the flow of air from the upper respiratory tract into the alveolar sacs of the lungs. It includes interactive exercises, model labeling, and physiological concept applications. Data and Observations a. Functions of the Respiratory System Function Description Gas Exchange Facilitates oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal through alveoli. Pulmonary Defense Mechanisms Traps particulates, pathogens, and filters air via mucociliary escalator. Acid-Base Regulation Maintains pH by balancing CO₂ levels through ventilation control. Metabolic Processing Involves inactivation and modification of bioactive substances. b. Anatomy of the Larynx Key components in the laryngeal model include: Questions and Explanations a. What is Boyle’s Law and how does it apply to respiration? Boyle’s Law states that the pressure of a gas is inversely related to its volume when temperature remains constant. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, expanding the thoracic cavity, which decreases the intrapulmonary pressure and draws air into the lungs. Conversely, exhalation involves diaphragm relaxation, reducing lung volume and increasing pressure, thus expelling air. b. How does the thoracic cavity’s volume affect lung pressure? The thoracic cavity’s expansion during inspiration lowers alveolar pressure relative to the external atmosphere, facilitating airflow into the lungs. During expiration, the cavity contracts, increasing pressure and pushing air out. c. What role does surfactant play in lung function? Surfactant is a phospholipid-rich substance secreted by alveolar cells. It reduces surface tension within alveoli, preventing collapse, especially during exhalation, and aids in keeping the alveoli open for effective gas exchange. BIOS 255 Week 6 Respiratory System-Anatomy d. What are the main pulmonary volumes? Pulmonary Volume Description Tidal Volume (TV) Air moved in and out during normal breathing (~500 mL). Inspiratory Reserve Volume Additional air inhaled beyond a normal breath (~3000 mL in adults). Expiratory Reserve Volume Air forcefully exhaled after a normal breath (~1200 mL). Residual Volume Air remaining in lungs after maximal exhalation (~1200 mL). Discussion a. What is anatomical dead space? Anatomical dead space refers to portions of the respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles) where air flows but no gas exchange occurs. Typically, this volume is around 150 mL in a healthy adult and represents air that never reaches the alveoli. b. Were there any difficulties experienced during the lab? One challenge encountered was the rotation functionality of the digital skeleton model, which was not as intuitive. Improved interactivity and labeling features would enhance the learning experience. Reflection Grading Rubric Component Points Part 1: Completion of Anatomy.TV modules 10 Part 2: Lab Report   – Purpose 2 – Procedure 2 – Data and Observations 5 – Questions 4 – Discussion 2 – Reflection 5 Total 30 References American Lung Association. (2023). How lungs work. https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/how-lungs-work Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2018). Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed.). Pearson. BIOS 255 Week 6 Respiratory System-Anatomy National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2022). Your lungs & respiratory system. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov OpenStax. (2020). Anatomy and Physiology. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction

Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date Manuel’s Experience with Hypersensitivity Reaction Manuel’s case involves a hypersensitivity reaction, which refers to an exaggerated and inappropriate response of the immune system to a foreign substance, known as an antigen. In Manuel’s situation, the antigen is bee venom. Shortly after being stung by a bee, he developed hives—an immediate sign of hypersensitivity. These immune reactions are classified into four major types, each defined by the specific immune components involved, the nature of the antigen-antibody interaction, and the timing of the response. What are the Four Types of Hypersensitivity Reactions? Hypersensitivity reactions are categorized as Types I through IV: Type I Hypersensitivity (Immediate or Allergic Reaction) This type is mediated by Immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies. Upon exposure to allergens such as pollen, food, or insect venom, the immune system produces IgE antibodies that bind to mast cells and basophils. When re-exposed to the allergen, these cells release histamine and other inflammatory mediators, resulting in symptoms like hives, nasal congestion, bronchospasm, and in severe cases, anaphylaxis—a life-threatening condition marked by vasodilation, airway obstruction, and circulatory collapse. Type II Hypersensitivity (Cytotoxic Reaction) In this reaction, IgG or IgM antibodies target antigens present on the surface of specific cells. This triggers the complement system, leading to cell lysis or functional impairment. Type II reactions are commonly associated with autoimmune conditions such as autoimmune hemolytic anemia, where red blood cells are destroyed, Goodpasture syndrome, and Myasthenia gravis. Type III Hypersensitivity (Immune Complex-Mediated Reaction) Type III hypersensitivity occurs when antigen-antibody complexes (mainly IgM and IgG) are not adequately cleared and deposit in tissues. These immune complexes activate the complement system, causing inflammation and tissue injury. Conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and serum sickness are classic examples of this reaction type. Type IV Hypersensitivity (Delayed-Type Reaction) This reaction is mediated by sensitized T lymphocytes rather than antibodies. Upon antigen recognition, T cells release cytokines that attract macrophages and other inflammatory cells, resulting in tissue damage. The response typically appears 48–72 hours after exposure and is seen in conditions like tuberculosis, fungal infections, and contact dermatitis. What Type of Hypersensitivity Reaction is Manuel Experiencing? Based on the rapid onset of hives following the bee sting, Manuel is experiencing a Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Bee venom acts as the allergen, triggering an IgE-mediated immune response. The hallmark feature of this type of reaction is the immediate appearance of symptoms like hives and potential progression to anaphylaxis if not treated promptly. How are Hypersensitivity Reactions Treated? The treatment approach varies according to the type and severity of the hypersensitivity reaction: Treatment for Type I Reactions The primary intervention for severe Type I reactions is epinephrine, which counteracts the effects of histamine by constricting blood vessels, relaxing airway muscles, and stabilizing mast cells. Additional medications include antihistamines to block histamine receptors and corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and immune response. Treatment for Type II and III Reactions These reactions often stem from underlying autoimmune disorders. Immunosuppressive therapy is typically used to modulate immune activity. Treating the root cause—whether it be infection or autoimmune pathology—is also crucial. Treatment for Type IV Reactions Since this type is commonly associated with infections or allergens, treatment may include antibiotics for bacterial infections, antifungal medications, or anti-inflammatory drugs to manage tissue damage and inflammation. Conclusion Hypersensitivity reactions are immune-mediated responses that range from mild allergic symptoms to severe systemic complications. Understanding the types—each driven by different immune mechanisms—enables timely and appropriate intervention. Manuel’s case highlights the urgency in managing Type I reactions, particularly due to the risk of anaphylaxis. A tailored treatment plan based on the specific hypersensitivity type can significantly improve patient outcomes. Table of Hypersensitivity Reactions Type of Hypersensitivity Immune Component Involved Common Conditions Typical Symptoms Treatment Approach Type I IgE antibodies Allergies (bee stings, pollen, food) Hives, wheezing, anaphylaxis Epinephrine, antihistamines, corticosteroids Type II IgG or IgM antibodies Autoimmune hemolytic anemia, Goodpasture syndrome Cell lysis, organ damage Immunosuppressive drugs, disease-specific management Type III Immune complexes (IgG, IgM) Lupus, Serum sickness Inflammation, joint pain, tissue damage Immunosuppressive therapy, infection control Type IV T lymphocytes (T cells) Tuberculosis, contact dermatitis, fungal infections Delayed inflammation, tissue destruction Antibiotics, antifungals, anti-inflammatory medications References Cunha, J. P. (2020, November 2). What are the four types of allergic reactions? eMedicineHealth. Retrieved February 6, 2022, from https://www.emedicinehealth.com/what_are_the_4_types_of_allergic_reactions/article_em.htm HealthEngine Blog. (2005, October 5). Insect stings (Bee Sting, Spider Bites) information: Myvmc. Retrieved February 6, 2022, from https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/insect-stings-bee-sting-spider-bites BIOS 255 Week 5 Case Study Hypersensitivity Reactions

Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date BIOS 255 Week 4 Lymphatic System Learning Objectives Overview and Functions of the Lymphatic System The lymphatic system plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis and immune defense. It is composed of lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic tissues, and lymphatic organs that are distributed throughout the body. This system supports fluid balance by draining excess interstitial fluid, aids in the absorption and transport of dietary lipids from the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream, and contributes to immune surveillance by producing and circulating lymphocytes. Approximately 30 liters of fluid filter from blood capillaries into tissues each day, but only 27 liters reenter the venous circulation. The remaining 3 liters are recovered by the lymphatic system and returned to the blood, preventing edema and promoting fluid balance (Marieb & Hoehn, 2022). Lymphatic capillaries, which are present alongside blood capillary networks, collect interstitial fluid that contains waste products, pathogens, and debris. This fluid, now called lymph, moves through progressively larger lymphatic vessels and passes through lymph nodes, where immune cells filter harmful substances. The system ultimately returns lymph to the circulatory system through the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct. Assignment Instructions Part 1: Interactive Lab via Anatomy.TV To complete this part of the lab, students are instructed to explore interactive sections on Anatomy.TV by accessing the following: As students navigate through these modules, they must record observations and answers in the lab report provided. Part 2: Lymphatic System Lab Report Below is a detailed rephrased version of the lab report, with added explanations and enhanced content: Question Answer 1. What are the four major components of the lymphatic system? The lymphatic system includes the following key components: • Lymph – a clear fluid rich in white blood cells, derived from interstitial fluid.• Lymphatic vessels – a network of conduits that transport lymph.• Lymphatic tissues – connective tissues populated by immune cells, mainly lymphocytes.• Lymphatic organs – specialized structures like the spleen and lymph nodes involved in immune functions. 2. What are three primary functions of the lymphatic system? • Immune surveillance – Detects and fights pathogens.• Fluid recovery – Returns excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream.• Lipid transport – Facilitates the absorption and transport of dietary fats from the small intestine into the blood. 3. Name three secondary lymphoid organs. • Lymph nodes• Spleen• Tonsils 4. List the three tonsils and their anatomical locations. • Pharyngeal (Adenoid) tonsil – Positioned in the nasopharynx behind the nasal cavity.• Palatine tonsils – Located on each side of the oropharynx.• Lingual tonsils – Found at the base of the tongue. 5. Identify the labeled structures from the lymphatic capillaries diagram. A. ArterioleB. Lymphatic capillaryC. Anchoring filamentsD. Lymphatic capillary pore (lumen)E. Lymphatic endothelial cell 6. How do the intestines contribute to lymphatic function? • The small intestine contains specialized lymphatic vessels known as lacteals, which absorb dietary fats too large for blood capillaries.• These fats, packaged as chyle, are transported by intestinal trunks and eventually drain into the thoracic duct for return to circulation. 7. Describe the structure and function of the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel, measuring about 38–45 cm. It gathers lymph from the entire left side of the body and areas below the diaphragm on the right side. It empties into the junction of the left subclavian and internal jugular veins, completing the return of lymph to venous circulation. 8. What are the two mechanisms responsible for lymph movement? • Skeletal muscle pump – Muscle contractions compress lymphatic vessels, pushing lymph forward.• Respiratory pump – Breathing movements create pressure changes that help draw lymph toward the thoracic cavity. 9. What happens clinically when the spleen is surgically removed? Splenectomy increases vulnerability to infections, particularly those caused by encapsulated bacteria, as the spleen plays a vital role in filtering blood and initiating immune responses. 10. How does the skeletal system aid lymphatic circulation? When skeletal muscles contract, they compress adjacent veins and lymphatic vessels. This pressure propels blood and lymph through their respective valves, encouraging unidirectional flow. Muscle relaxation can lead to temporary backflow, but valves prevent reverse movement, ensuring efficiency. Grading Rubric Task Points Part 1: Lab activities 15 Part 2: Lab report 15 Total 30 References Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2022). Human Anatomy & Physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2020). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (16th ed.). Wiley.

Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels Learning Objectives Introduction The human circulatory system relies on a complex network of blood vessels—arteries, veins, and capillaries—to deliver oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body. Arteries and veins are composed of three concentric tissue layers, while capillaries have a single layer to facilitate the exchange of gases and nutrients. Blood flow and pressure are regulated by multiple mechanisms, including neural and hormonal control, as well as the physical properties of the vessels themselves. A disturbance in these mechanisms can lead to circulatory shock—a life-threatening condition. This lab allows students to explore cardiovascular pathways using interactive 3D models and trace the route of blood through both pulmonary and systemic circulations. Assignment Part 1: Anatomy.TV Lab Activities Students must complete interactive activities located in the following sections of Anatomy.TV under the Cardiovascular System module: To access:Resources tab > Library > Library Resources-Database A-Z > Anatomy.TV > Cardiovascular System > Assigned Sections Record observations in a lab report as you complete each module. Part 2: Blood Vessel Lab Report 1. Describe the different types of blood vessels by completing the following chart: Blood Vessel Histological Description / Special Characteristics Function Large arteries Thick-walled vessels such as the aorta; composed of elastic fibers and smooth muscle Transport oxygenated blood from the heart to various body regions Medium arteries Muscular arteries with more smooth muscle and fewer elastic fibers compared to large arteries Distribute blood from large elastic arteries to arterioles Arterioles Narrow vessels with muscular walls; connect arteries to capillaries Regulate blood flow into capillary beds via vasoconstriction or dilation Capillaries Composed of a single endothelial cell layer Permit exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste between blood and tissues Medium veins Veins with one-way valves and thinner walls than arteries; diameter about 1 cm Return deoxygenated blood to the heart and prevent backflow Large veins Large diameter vessels with thick tunica externa; usually valve-less Collect blood from smaller tributaries and return it to the heart 2. How does the cardiovascular center alter parasympathetic and sympathetic stimulation of the sinoatrial (SA) node to maintain homeostasis when a fall in arterial pressure is detected by baroreceptors? When baroreceptors detect a decline in arterial pressure, the cardiovascular center responds by reducing parasympathetic stimulation (via the vagus nerve) and enhancing sympathetic activity through cardiac accelerator nerves. This increases heart rate and cardiac output to help restore blood pressure. 3. Describe the signs and symptoms of shock. Shock is a critical condition characterized by inadequate blood flow to tissues. Clinical signs include hypotension (low blood pressure), rapid heart rate, excessive sweating, cool and clammy skin, reduced urine output, confusion or altered mental state, intense thirst, and in severe cases, metabolic acidosis due to lactic acid buildup. 4. Identify the missing arteries from the schematic. The missing arteries are: 5. Identify the missing arteries from the schematic. These are repeated for emphasis or review: 6. Trace the pathway of a drop of blood from the heart to the top of the foot (dorsalis pedis artery): 7. Trace the pathway of a drop of blood from the superior mesenteric vein to the right atrium: 8. Define the following terms: a. Portal system:A vascular arrangement in which blood passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart. It enables substances absorbed in one organ to be modified or processed in another before entering systemic circulation. b. Function of the hepatic portal system:The hepatic portal system collects nutrient-rich blood from the gastrointestinal organs and delivers it to the liver. Here, toxins are filtered, and nutrients are stored or metabolized before the blood re-enters general circulation. Grading Rubric for Lab Report Activity Deliverable Points Part 1 Completion of lab activities 15 Part 2 Completion of lab report 15 Total All sections completed 30 References Hall, J. E., & Guyton, A. C. (2021). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (14th ed.). Elsevier. Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2018). Human anatomy & physiology (11th ed.). Pearson. BIOS 255 Week 3 Lab-Blood Pressure/Blood Vessel Labeling Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2017). Principles of anatomy and physiology (15th ed.). Wiley. National Institutes of Health. (n.d.). Circulatory system. MedlinePlus. https://medlineplus.gov/circulatorysystem.html BIOS 255 Week 3 Lab-Blood Pressure/Blood Vessel Labeling

Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date BIOS 255 Week 2 Cardiovascular System: Heart Learning Outcomes Introduction The heart is a powerful muscular organ responsible for pumping blood throughout the body via two primary circuits: the pulmonary and systemic circulations. It ensures that oxygen-poor blood is transported to the lungs for gas exchange and that oxygen-rich blood is distributed to meet the body’s metabolic needs. Made of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, the heart functions independently with its intrinsic rhythm, allowing it to continuously contract and pump blood. Cardiovascular function must adjust to varying levels of activity. For instance, during physical exertion or cellular repair, tissues require increased oxygen and nutrients, which elevates the workload on the heart. Conversely, at rest, the heart functions at a reduced capacity. Cardiac output, defined as the volume of blood the heart pumps per minute, becomes a vital parameter to evaluate. This lab aims to understand how cardiac output, heart rate, and stroke volume respond to exercise and how these parameters can be measured accurately. Part 1: Anatomy.TV Activities To prepare for the virtual cardiovascular function lab, students must access and complete the Anatomy.TV modules on the cardiovascular system. Navigation Path:Resources tab → Library → Library Resources (Database A-Z) → Anatomy.TV → Titles (default tab) → Select Cardiovascular System → Choose Heart and Cardiac Output Sections Once selected, scroll down the right side of the platform to view and complete all learning activities associated with the designated sections. Part 2: Heart Lab Report Purpose The primary aim of this lab was to explore how the cardiovascular and respiratory systems adapt during exercise. It also focused on how to measure cardiac output (CO) and blood pressure (BP), and how heart rate (HR), stroke volume (SV), and total peripheral resistance change with activity. Procedure During the lab, we assessed cardiovascular responses to exercise using a Doppler ultrasound and a sphygmomanometer. Test subjects performed physical activity on a stationary cycle ergometer while we recorded measurements at rest and during incremental workload levels. Blood pressure (systolic/diastolic), heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output were obtained to evaluate cardiovascular function and potential abnormalities. Data and Observations Parameter HR at Rest HR Max (Exercise) SV at Rest SV Max (Exercise) CO at Rest CO Max (Exercise) Subject A 60 bpm 150 bpm @ 125 W 70 ml/beat 120 ml/beat 4.2 L/min 18.0 L/min Subject E 80 bpm 200 bpm @ 75 W 40 ml/beat 35 ml/beat 3.2 L/min 7.0 L/min Questions a. Describe the flow of blood, in order, starting at the superior vena cava, through the heart, to the lungs. Continue with the flow of blood from the lungs to and through the heart to the aorta. Include the 4 chambers of the heart, the 4 valves, and the major blood vessels entering or leaving the heart.Blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava, flowing into the right atrium. It then passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From there, it is pushed through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries, which carry it to the lungs for oxygenation. The oxygen-rich blood returns via the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, moves through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle, and finally exits through the aortic valve into the aorta, supplying the rest of the body. b. Define stroke volume in words.Stroke volume is the quantity of blood pumped out of a ventricle with each heartbeat. c. Define cardiac output in words and with the equation.Cardiac output refers to the total volume of blood the heart ejects per minute. It is calculated using the formula:Cardiac Output (CO) = Stroke Volume (SV) × Heart Rate (HR) d. How does an increase in heart rate affect cardiac output (assuming no change in stroke volume)?If stroke volume remains unchanged, an increase in heart rate will proportionally increase cardiac output. Discussion a. Compare the change in heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output with exercise between Subject A and Subject E. What does this suggest regarding the health of the heart of Subject E?Subject A showed significant increases in stroke volume and cardiac output with exercise, suggesting a healthy and efficient cardiovascular system. Subject E, however, experienced a decrease in stroke volume during exercise despite an elevated heart rate. This may suggest underlying cardiac dysfunction, possibly related to aortic valve regurgitation. The heart of Subject E is likely compensating for reduced output by increasing heart rate, which may also contribute to elevated systolic pressure and decreased diastolic pressure—an indicator of compromised cardiac efficiency. b. Briefly mention any difficulties with the lab and/or information you wish was present in the lab.The lab was conducted smoothly without any technical or procedural difficulties. However, it would be helpful to include comparative data from healthy and clinical populations for deeper analysis. Reflection 1. Understanding Normal Cardiac ValuesThis lab enhanced my understanding of normal cardiovascular measurements. For example, a healthy heart rate (HR) typically ranges between 60–70 beats per minute, stroke volume (SV) is around 70 ml/beat, and cardiac output (CO) is approximately 5 liters per minute at rest. 2. Application of the Doppler Effect in CardiologyI learned how Doppler ultrasound measures changes in frequency to assess blood flow and cardiac function. This principle is similar to how the pitch of a siren changes as an ambulance approaches and then moves away. Grading Rubric for Lab Report Activity Activity Points Part 1: Complete Lab Activities/Simulation 10 Part 2: Complete Lab Report and Questions   – Purpose 2 – Procedure 2 – Data and Details 5 – Questions 4 – Discussion 2 – Reflection 5 Total 30 Abbreviations:HR = Heart RateSV = Stroke VolumeCO = Cardiac Output References Hall, J. E., & Guyton, A. C. (2020). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (14th ed.). Elsevier. Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2022). Human Anatomy & Physiology (12th ed.). Pearson. BIOS 255 Week 2 Cardiovascular System: Heart Widmaier, E. P., Raff, H., & Strang, K. T. (2019). Vander’s Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function (15th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Student Name Chamberlain University BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab Prof. Name Date BIOS 255 Week 1 Lab Instructions Mastering Laboratory Safety and Blood Typing Techniques Laboratory activities form the cornerstone of learning in anatomy and physiology. During Week 1, students will engage in three essential exercises designed to build proficiency in lab safety protocols, blood typing methodologies, and blood cell histology. These foundational tasks include a Lab Safety Quiz, a Blood Typing Experiment, and the creation of a Blood Histology PowerPoint presentation. Each task not only contributes to a greater understanding of human physiology but also ensures safe and accurate laboratory practices. Laboratory Safety Quiz: Establishing a Safe Learning Environment What is the importance of the Lab Safety Quiz? Prior to handling lab materials or conducting experiments, students are expected to complete a Lab Safety Quiz. This activity ensures familiarity with the established safety protocols necessary to maintain a secure lab environment. Key Guidelines for Completion Task Description Review Safety Procedures Study the Chamberlain University Laboratory Safety Training materials. Quiz Certification Complete the Lab Safety Quiz via Canvas by the listed due date. Objective To demonstrate knowledge of essential safety measures and best practices. Point Value 5 points Completing this certification confirms that the student understands critical safety protocols such as proper use of lab equipment, emergency procedures, and contamination prevention. These precautions not only protect the individual but also safeguard the entire class during hands-on activities. Blood Typing Experiment and Analysis What is the purpose of the blood typing lab? This exercise provides students with practical experience in determining blood types and highlights the critical role of blood compatibility in medical settings. The experiment is conducted in two main phases: a pre-lab preparation and the actual hands-on activity. Part 1: Pre-Lab Assignment Students must complete a Pre-Lab activity to familiarize themselves with key immunological principles, such as how antibodies and antigens interact. This foundational knowledge is crucial for interpreting the outcomes of blood typing. Task Description Pre-Lab Completion Submit answers to the Canvas Pre-Lab assignment. Objective Understand antigen-antibody interactions before the lab. Point Value 5 points Part 2: Performing the Blood Typing Procedure Working collaboratively in small groups, students will perform blood typing using Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-Rh serums. Observing agglutination reactions will help determine each sample’s blood type. Step Instructions Preparation Gather slides, serums, blood samples, and toothpicks. Procedure Place blood drops in each well; add specific serums; stir with toothpicks. Observation Watch for agglutination, indicating a reaction between antigens and antibodies. Worksheet Submission Submit one worksheet per group on Canvas, listing all members. Point Value 10 points Blood Histology PowerPoint Presentation What is the objective of the Blood Histology activity? This assignment reinforces the recognition of different blood cells and their physiological functions. Students will photograph various blood components and present their observations in a PowerPoint format. Instructions for Completion Step Description Obtain Blood Slide Use a microscope to examine a prepared blood smear. Identify Blood Cells Capture clear images of RBCs, WBCs (including neutrophils, eosinophils, etc.), and platelets. Create Presentation Each slide should include an image, description of the cell, its function, normal range, and related disorders. Submission Upload the PowerPoint to Canvas by the deadline. Point Value 10 points Ensure proper APA formatting and cite all sources in alignment with Chamberlain’s Academic Integrity Policy. Understanding Blood Typing: Critical for Medical Safety Why is blood typing important? Blood typing plays a pivotal role in ensuring the safety of blood transfusions. Incompatibility between donor and recipient blood can cause agglutination, potentially leading to severe outcomes such as hemolytic reactions or kidney failure. What causes blood types to differ? Blood types are determined by specific antigens present on the surface of red blood cells. The presence or absence of A and B antigens and the Rh factor leads to eight possible blood types. The immune system will produce antibodies against antigens that are not naturally present in the individual’s blood. Blood Type Antigen Present Antibodies Produced Approx. U.S. Population Share O+ Rh Anti-A, Anti-B 38% A+ A, Rh Anti-B 34% B+ B, Rh Anti-A 9% O– None Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-Rh 7% A– A Anti-B, Anti-Rh 6% AB+ A, B, Rh None (universal recipient) 3% B– B Anti-A, Anti-Rh 2% AB– A, B Anti-Rh 1% How is a blood typing test performed in the lab? Students will use Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-Rh serums to detect the presence of antigens on blood samples. The procedure involves observing for visible clumping (agglutination), indicating a positive reaction. Materials Required Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-D (Rh) serums, blood samples, toothpicks, typing slide Procedure: Example Table for Blood Typing Results Sample Anti-A Anti-B Anti-Rh Blood Type 1 + – + A+ 2 – + – B– 3 – – – O– 4 + + + AB+ Conclusion The Week 1 laboratory tasks offer foundational insights into human physiology, including lab safety, blood compatibility, and histological identification of blood cells. Mastery of these skills is essential for future healthcare professionals. Ensuring accurate blood typing and understanding immune responses can significantly improve patient safety in clinical settings. Students should closely follow deadlines and maintain academic integrity throughout their submissions. References American Red Cross. (n.d.). Blood types. https://www.redcrossblood.org/learn-about-blood/blood-types.html Chamberlain University. (n.d.). Laboratory safety training slides. Canvas Learning Management System. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2022). Blood transfusion. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/blood-transfusion BIOS 255 Week 1 Lab Instructions Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2020). Principles of anatomy and physiology (16th ed.). Wiley.