C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

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Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

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Date

UNIT 1 — MILESTONE 1

Classic Psychological Studies: Communicating Observed Behavior

In psychology, description refers to the process of articulating or expressing observed behaviors. While observation pertains to directly witnessing or measuring behavior, description involves conveying those observations in an organized and scientific manner. Accurate communication of behavior is crucial in psychology as it fosters shared comprehension among researchers, allows for replication of studies, and supports further exploration of psychological phenomena (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
In psychology, communicating what you see happening with behavior is known as __________.	Description	Observation is the act of perceiving behavior, whereas description involves clearly communicating those perceptions to others.

Goals and Definitions: Focus of Behaviorists

Behaviorism, a prominent school of thought in psychology, concentrates on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes. Behaviorists assert that behavior is shaped and controlled by environmental factors and learning experiences. Through classical and operant conditioning, behaviors can be predicted, modified, and controlled effectively (Skinner, 1953). This emphasis on observable stimuli and responses distinguishes behaviorism from other psychological approaches.

Question	Answer	Explanation
Behaviorists study __________.	The effects of learning and the environment on behavior	Behaviorists focus exclusively on observable behaviors influenced by environmental stimuli rather than internal mental states.

History of Psychological Theories: Behaviorism and Gestalt – Stimulus and Response

The foundation of behaviorism lies in the idea that a stimulus, an external environmental event, triggers a response, which is the behavioral reaction. Learning occurs by forming associations between stimuli and responses, eventually creating habitual behaviors (Watson, 1913).

Key Terms	Definitions
Stimulus	Any event or circumstance that provokes a behavioral reaction.
Response	The behavior exhibited following a stimulus.

Research Design in Psychology: Independent Variables

In experimental psychology, independent variables are the factors intentionally altered by researchers to observe their effects on dependent variables. Manipulating independent variables enables scientists to establish cause-and-effect relationships within their studies (Field, 2018).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Variables in an experiment that are changed and controlled by the experimenter are called __________.	Independent variables	These are variables that researchers manipulate to measure their impact on behavior or other dependent variables.

Factors That Impact Research Results: Controlling Bias

A double-blind study is a research technique designed to minimize bias. In this approach, neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is in the control or experimental group. This method prevents both conscious and unconscious influences on the results, enhancing the validity and reliability of the findings (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008).

Question	Answer	Explanation
__________ is a method of controlling bias in which both the experimenter and the subjects do not know who is experiencing the experimental conditions.	A double-blind study	This process protects against bias that could affect the results, ensuring more objective findings.

Three Levels of Analysis: Biological Perspective

The biological perspective in psychology highlights the influence of genetics, brain function, and evolutionary processes on behavior. This viewpoint explores how inherited traits and neurobiological mechanisms shape psychological phenomena, grounding behavior in physical and evolutionary foundations (Pinel, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which perspective emphasizes the role of genetics and natural selection in the development of human behavior?	Biological perspective	It examines how biology, including genetics and brain function, influences behavior over time.

History of Psychological Theories: Structuralism, Functionalism, and Freud – Founder of Psychodynamic Theory

Sigmund Freud is the pioneer of psychodynamic theory, which proposes that unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts profoundly influence behavior. Freud’s clinical observations led him to believe psychological disorders often stemmed from unresolved unconscious conflicts rather than physical causes (Freud, 1923).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Who founded psychodynamic theory?	Sigmund Freud	Freud’s work focused on the unconscious mind and its effect on conscious behavior.

History of Psychological Theories: Cognitive Psychology and Humanism – Humanism and the Hierarchy of Needs

Humanistic psychology, spearheaded by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, centers on individual growth and self-actualization. Maslow introduced the hierarchy of needs, a model describing how humans progress from fulfilling basic physiological necessities to achieving higher levels of psychological fulfillment and self-realization (Maslow, 1943).

Question	Answer	Explanation
Which scientist significantly contributed to humanistic psychology through the hierarchy of needs?	Abraham Maslow	Maslow’s model outlines motivation as a progression through different levels of human needs.

The Scientific Method and Research Methods: Biased Samples

C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

A biased sample occurs when the participants selected for a study do not accurately represent the broader population, leading to potentially invalid or misleading conclusions. Researchers aim to reduce bias by using random sampling methods to enhance the representativeness and generalizability of results (Gravetter & Forzano, 2020).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What describes a biased sample?	A sample that is not representative of a population	Such samples limit the validity of findings and restrict their applicability.

Ethics in Psychological Research: APA Code of Conduct

The American Psychological Association (APA) establishes ethical guidelines to protect research participants’ rights and well-being. The APA Code of Conduct underscores principles such as informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm, ensuring that psychological research is conducted with integrity and respect for human dignity (APA, 2017).

Question	Answer	Explanation
What is a central focus of the APA Professional Code of Conduct for psychologists?	Protecting the welfare of clients	The code ensures ethical standards to safeguard participant rights and promote ethical research practices.

References

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. https://www.apa.org/ethics/code

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.

Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. W.W. Norton & Company.

Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2020). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

C180 Milestone 1 Study Notes

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

Pinel, J. P. J. (2017). Biopsychology (10th ed.). Pearson Education.

Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (2008). Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177.