C180 Foundations of Psychology Study Guide: Key Concepts & Theories

Grace J.
November 9, 2025November 9, 2025
BSN, C180, Western Governors University

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Western Governors University

C180 Introduction to Psychology

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Evolution of Psychology

What is psychology and how is it defined using the terms science, mind, and behavior?

Psychology is fundamentally the scientific study of both the mind and behavior. It is rooted in the systematic observation and empirical collection of data to draw objective conclusions, rather than relying on subjective opinions or assumptions. The mind encompasses the various mental processes and functions produced by the brain, such as perception, memory, emotions, and reasoning, all of which influence how humans experience the world. Behavior refers to the observable actions—both voluntary and involuntary—like speech, facial expressions, and movements, which are often shaped by underlying mental events like thoughts or perceptions (Myers & DeWall, 2022).

What are the three levels of analysis in psychology, and what is the purpose of each?

Psychological phenomena are explored through three distinct levels of analysis: brain, person, and group. Each level offers a unique perspective in understanding human behavior and mental processes.

Level of Analysis	Focus	Purpose
Brain	Investigates biological structures and processes, including neurons, neurotransmitters, and genetics.	To explain how biological mechanisms influence behavior and mental states.
Person	Examines individual mental processes such as perception, emotion, learning, and motivation.	To understand how personal cognition and experiences affect behavior and thought.
Group	Studies social and cultural interactions among individuals.	To analyze how relationships, culture, and environment impact behavior.

What are the major schools of thought in psychology and their contributions?

Psychology’s history is marked by several influential schools of thought, each emphasizing different facets of human experience:

School of Thought	Founder/Key Figure	Focus and Contribution
Structuralism	Wilhelm Wundt (1879)	Concentrated on breaking down consciousness into basic sensations and feelings through introspection.
Functionalism	William James	Studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments and support survival.
Gestalt Psychology	Max Wertheimer	Proposed that the mind perceives wholes rather than parts, emphasizing that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
Behaviorism	Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner	Focused on observable behavior and stimulus-response mechanisms rather than internal mental states.
Psychodynamic Theory	Sigmund Freud	Highlighted the influence of unconscious motives and conflicts on behavior, including concepts like the id, ego, and superego.
Humanism	Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers	Emphasized human potential, personal growth, free will, and the importance of self-actualization.

Each school has profoundly shaped contemporary psychology’s approach to studying behavior, cognition, and emotion.

What are the primary types of psychologists in the field today?

Modern psychology consists of various specializations, each addressing different human experiences:

Type of Psychologist	Primary Role
Clinical and Counseling	Diagnose and treat mental health disorders; provide therapy and support coping mechanisms.
Academic	Conduct research and teach in universities to expand psychological knowledge.
Applied	Apply psychological principles in practical settings such as business, healthcare, education, and sports.

Psychological Research

What distinguishes the four main approaches to research in psychology?

Psychological research employs four key methodologies, each suited to different research questions and purposes:

Research Type	Description	Key Features
Descriptive Research	Observes and describes behavior without manipulation.	Uses methods like naturalistic observation, surveys, and case studies for detailed data.
Correlational Research	Explores statistical associations between variables.	Uses correlation coefficients from -1.0 to +1.0 to describe strength and direction.
Experimental Research	Manipulates an independent variable to observe effects on a dependent variable.	Employs control and experimental groups to establish causality.
Case Study	In-depth examination of an individual or small group.	Provides detailed insights into rare or unique psychological phenomena.

What ethical considerations are essential in psychological research?

Ethical guidelines in research are crucial for protecting participants’ rights and well-being. Key ethical principles include:

Ethical Principle	Explanation	Importance
Confidentiality	Ensures participant data and responses remain private.	Protects privacy and promotes honest participation.
Potential Risks	Identifies possible physical, psychological, or emotional harm from participation.	Minimizes harm and upholds research integrity.
Withdrawal Procedures	Allows participants to exit the study at any time without penalty.	Guarantees voluntary participation and ethical transparency.

How do the following psychological research terms differ?

Concepts	Definition	Example/Distinction
Independent vs. Dependent Variables	The independent variable is changed/manipulated; the dependent variable is measured.	Manipulating sleep hours (independent) to measure alertness (dependent).
Positive vs. Negative Correlations	Positive correlations indicate variables move in the same direction; negative correlations indicate opposite directions.	Height and weight (positive); exercise and body fat (negative).
Validity vs. Reliability	Validity assesses whether a test measures what it claims; reliability ensures consistent results over time.	A depression test measuring depression (valid); consistent test results (reliable).
Random Assignment vs. Random Sample	Random assignment places participants into groups; random sampling selects participants from a larger population.	Both methods improve fairness and representativeness.
Hypothesis vs. Theory	A hypothesis is a testable prediction; a theory is a well-supported explanation based on evidence.	“Sleep improves memory” (hypothesis) vs. “Cognitive theory of memory” (theory).

What is the role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee that evaluates proposed psychological research to ensure it complies with ethical and safety standards. The IRB scrutinizes potential risks and benefits at biological, personal, and social levels to safeguard participants and maintain scientific rigor (American Psychological Association, 2020).

What are the critical elements of informed consent in research?

Informed consent is a vital ethical requirement that mandates participants be fully informed about a study before agreeing to take part. Participants should understand:

The purpose and procedures of the research
Any potential risks or benefits involved
Their right to withdraw from the study at any point without penalty

This transparency upholds participants’ autonomy and aligns with the APA’s Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct (APA, 2020).